MGT 501 Mgmt. and Org. Behavior Organizations as POLITICAL SYSTEMS - Essay

MGT 501 Mgmt. and Org. Behavior Organizations as POLITICAL SYSTEMS - systems of political activity, with patterns of competing interests, conflict and power - Essay Example how things have changed over the years and how an individual needs to act if he / she want to survive their job. Any kind of loose talk or gossip can prove to be very expensive for the individuals and hence a great deal of care needs to be taken. The two articles have in their own ways brought out the various points of how individuals can manage their position in the offices without getting into the bad books of either their colleagues or the bosses. The main difference of the two articles however is that Kennedy provides insights on how to effectively lead a team and more importantly how to manage teams in the current times. She explains how the leadership was different in earlier times and how people now prefer to be led than managed. This is clear from the statement in the article, ‘Old style management is out. Younger workers, especially, dont want to be managed. They want to follow someone who knows where he or she is going. They want to be taught, not directed. Labor shortages intensify when physician executives dont adapt their styles’ (Kennedy). Both the authors have presented very similar topics however have explained them in very different manners. Kennedy explains the politics and leadership in a manner which is more as a solution and advice to be good leaders in the current times, while Sun has given a clear cut explanation of the politics and ways to avoid them in a very diplomatic manner. This is clear from the statement made in the article, ‘Suppose your co-workers start complaining about the boss. If you join in, it makes you look disloyal to the boss’, he advices the individuals to reply as, ‘Come on, arent we exaggerating? [name of boss] really isnt THAT bad’ (Sun). Hence as seen it is clear that the two authors have in their own ways shown how to deal with politics in a company. Considering the topic of managing power in social relationships, it is important to note that this requires a high deal of

Interpersonal Conflict in the Movie Hitch Essay Example for Free

Interpersonal Conflict in the Movie Hitch Essay This article to me proves to be somewhat true. I do feel that when you are in a relationship with someone you do tend to feel that you know this person well and can understand what the other person is simply saying at that time. When you are the person trying to communicate it should be as clear as possible. Like in the article the man misunderstood what she was saying but he had no way of knowing because if she was hot temperature wise she should have just said it in a way where he would know she meant temperature wise. This could also put a major strain on relationship between people. There would always be arguments or something because you and whoever would never be able to communicate successfully with one another. It would be nothing but miscommunication because you would have thought that you would be close enough to someone appears to create the illusion of understanding more than actual understanding. (U. S. News World Report) Miscommunication played a major role in something that happen to me one day. We were having a pizza party for the class and we need to buy extra pizza for the teachers because the kids could only eat cheese. The issue was that some did not eat the same type of pizza as others. So, after that a coworker and I decided we wanted supreme and the others wanted chicken pizza. My understanding was that her and I was going half and half on the supreme pizza because when we made the order we both were telling our coworker what we did and did not want on the pizza. As the pizza arrived they gave her a whole pizza and they brought a supreme pizza upstairs which we was trying to figure out who pizza it was because other people was asking for some but we did not want to give it away until we knew who the pizza belonged to. However, after talking to my coworker she stated that the others thought we had just took their pizza to because it was in our class and did not know they were sending people to ask for the pizza because it was in our room but how were we suppose to know. It got me kind of upset and she told me not to worry about it. So later that day in the meeting after school I felt I needed to address the problem and told my coworkers how were we suppose to know the pizza in our room because our class is upstairs and you guys did not want the kids to see that type of pizza because they could not be offered any. They should have told us that they were coming to our room to eat instead of thinking we were trying to take the pizza they bought. From that day forward we made sure that we understand clearly what we are ordering and doing when it comes to lunch time or whatever.

Billy Collins: A Great American Poet Essay examples -- Poetry Analysis

â€Å"I ask them to take a poem and hold it up to the light like a color slide or press an ear against its hive†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (3); so begins a poem titled â€Å"Introduction To Poetry† by Billy Collins. â€Å"Introduction To Poetry† is, in fact, the introduction to a collection of poetry called Poetry 180, a program started by Collins during his time as poet laureate for the United States. The aim of this program is to get people, especially teenagers, interested in or reconnected with poetry. Collins selected an assortment of poems that are just fun to read and not meant to be discussed; he says in the forward to the collection, â€Å"High school is the focus of my program because all too often it is the place where poetry goes to die† (xvii). Collins was honored with the title of poet laureate in 2001 because of his own outstanding poetry. Billy Collins is considered by some to be the greatest American poet since Robert Frost because he connects with his read ers, he makes the mysterious ordinary, and he portrays the ordinary as mysterious. Billy Collins has been called â€Å"accessible without being [mundane]† (Pool, par.1). Collins is relatable because he takes situations that most people have been through and puts them into words that are at the same time comic and thought provoking. (Collins once said, â€Å"The perfect poem for me to write would be a poem in which the reader couldn’t tell at any point whether the poem was serious or humorous†). In the poem â€Å"Forgetfulness†, Collins describes the frantic feeling that comes when a fact floats out of the brain. The person experiencing this tragic but everyday occurrence struggles to bring it back, but â€Å"the memories [the person] used to harbor decided to retire to the southern hemisphere of the brain, to a little... ...riousness of this 10-year-old dealing with morality for the first time.† Words, objects, and events take on a deeper meaning through Billy Collins. Collins’ poems aren’t preachy or meant to teach a lesson; their purpose is to help readers be exposed to different ways of seeing things. Collins seems to go through life with his head slightly tilted; he finds amusement in both the ordinary and mysterious, and has a gift for being able to portray his insights in a way readers find accessible and often witty. Nothing is too lofty or insignificant for Collins to write about; he once said, â€Å"I think my work has to do with a sense that we are attempting, all the time, to create a logical, rational path through the day. To the left and right there are an amazing set of distractions that we usually can’t afford to follow. But the poet is willing to stop anywhere.†

Silent Features of the British Constitution

The English Constitution has made a great circuit of the globe & has become a common possession of civilized man. (G. B Adams) A Constitution means certain principles on which the Government of the State is organized & which determines the relations between the people & the Government the Constitution of British is unique in nature & has provided inspiration for a number of other constitutions in the world.Following are the salient features of the British Constitution.Unwritten:The British Constitution is unwritten in nature but it does not imply that all of its parts are unwritten. It means that it has not been reduced to writing in a single document. Some of the components are found in written from. Such as the Reform Act, 1832, the Parliament Act of 1911 etc.Evolution Growth:British Constitution is a result of an evolutionary growth. Constitution efforts as well as needs of time shaped its spontaneous growth.Flexible Constitution:British Constitution is a flexible Constitution & p arliament can amend it like alterations in the statutory laws by a simple majority.Unitary:British have unitary constitution. All powers of the state are concentrated in the hands of a single government for the whole country. There are no units or states in British.Bicameralism:The Parliament consists of two chambers House of Lords & House of Commons. The House of commons is a popular chamber whose member directly elected by the people while the House of Lords is basically a hereditary chamber & its member are nominated by the Queen.Supremacy of the Parliament:In U.K, Parliament has complete Supremacy or sovereignty. No law enacted by the parliament can be challenged in the court on the plea that is against the constitution.According To De Loeme:â€Å"British Parliament can do everything except to make a man into a woman†.Constitution Monarchy:From Constitution point of view, the crown is the repository of the entire Government of authority in British.Contrast In Theory & Pra ctice:There is sharp contrast between theory & practice in British As of points out that â€Å"theoretically, British Government is absolute monarchy, its government from signifies constitution monarchy while in practice, the Government structure is closer to republican from.Collective Responsibility:of Commons & the crown.Limited Separation Of Power:In British, there is limited Separation of power. There is concentration of political powers in the parliament while the cabinet which exercises executive power is just a committee of the parliament. Nevertheless many safeguards have been provided especially under Act of Settlement of 1701 to secure the independence of judiciary from under influence on the part of other two branches on the Government.Independence of Judiciary:Necessary safeguards have been provided against all sorts of interference in judicial process. Judges are paid liberal salaries & ensured security of service.Rule of Law:U.K Constitution provides rule of law. The principle of rule of law may be defined as that none of the person in above or below the law. All the persons are equal in the eyes of law. F any person violates the law, he should face the trial of the case in the Government & no person is given imprisonment until his offence is proved in the court.Fundamental Rights:Fundamental rights of the citizens have not been incorporated in the form of a list in the English Constitution. Constitution law is not the creator but a product of fundamental rights, which have been recognized from time to time by the Courts.ConventionsConventions play a vital role in the British political system. A government is formed & removed on the basis of convention. As Prof. Smith says that the conventions are main living source behind the Constitution.Two Party System:Two party system is flourished in British right from the beginning of the parliamentary period. Before the emergence of the present labor party in the second decay of the present century, the fight was between the conservatives & the Liberal party, but now the liberal party has lost its political significance.XVI: Universal Adult Suffrage:Every individual of the age of 18 has the right to vote.Mixed Constitution:The British Constitution is a mixture of the monarchical, aristocratic & democratic principal.Conservativeness:The British Constitution is a symbol of Conservativeness. The trend of the people of U.K is absolutely n favor of old institutions & this concept is existence of conservatism.Establishment of Local Government Institutions:The existence of local Government in U.K. Constitution is another comprehensive feature of the Constitution. Local Government institution is symbols of the civil liberties & freedom of the people.Unreality:Another characteristic of the English Constitution is its unreality. It has righty been pointed out that nothing in it is what seems or seems what it.Conclusion:  To conclude, I can say, that British Constitution in neither absolute ly unwritten nor absolutely written. It is a combination of both & has made a circuit for the globe & has become the common possession of civilized man.

Challenges of Boko Haram Insurgence on Nigeria’s Educational Sector Essay

The activities of the Islamic radical sect, Boko Haram has adversely affected Nigeria’s educational sector. This fact is not hidden as the name of the sect alone signifies a total outcry against education (western education) and schooling. Boko means â€Å"book or western learning in Hausa language and Haram means forbidden or sinful in Arabic language, thus the group’s name alone is a campaign against western education and schooling. Nigeria’s education sector at all level is suffering as a result of the current prevailing security situation in the north, a region where school enrolment has been the lowest in Nigeria. The sect’s activities have affected Nigeria’s educational sector in the following ways; †¢The sect’s activity has led to destruction of school buildings and other academic facilities †¢It has led to death of academic experts †¢It has led to exodus of academic experts and shortage of qualified teaching manpower in northern Nigeria †¢It has led to distraction and diversion of government’s attention from the educational sector †¢It has led to complete disruption of academic calendar in the region. So far this year, 15 schools have been burnt down in Maiduguri, the capital of Nigeria’s Borno State, forcing over 700 children out of formal education and pushing down enrolment rates in an already ill – educated region. The Islamic Boko Haram group is widely blamed for the attacks but the reality seems to be more complex. Both public and private schools in Maiduguri have been doused with gasoline at night and set on fire. Crude homemade bombs and soda bottles filled with gasoline have been hurled at the bare bones concrete classrooms Nigeria offers its children. The simple yellow facades have been blackened and the plain desks method to twisted pipes, leaving thousands of children without a place to learn, stranded at home and underfoot, while anxious parents plead with Nigerians authorities to come up with a contingency plan for their education. In a video posted on You Tube in February 2012, Boko Haram called on its follows to destroy schools providing western education in retaliation for the alleged targeting of Korani schools by the military. The spokes man of the sect, Abul Quqa, said the attacks were in response to what he called a targeting of the city’s (ie Maiduguri) abundant open – air Islamic schools by authorities. Since February when this call was made, many schools including private schools have been destroyed. However officials of the state have denied any of such attacks or campaign as young boys can be seen receiving lesson untroubled allover Maiduguri (the New York Times, 2012). This new dimensional shift of the sects attack has numerous adverse effects on educational development of the region and the country at large. According to Nigeria Education Data Survey 2010, school enrolment in Borno state is already low by 28 per cent than any other state in Nigeria. No doubt, the recent attack have made parents and guardians’ to withdraw their children from schools and has made it difficult for teachers and aid groups to persuade parents to let their children stay on at schools. Eric Gultscluss (a researcher in Nigeria for the Watching Human Right Organization) noted that it is not just the students at the targeted schools that end up being affected as targeting of schools can make children in neighboring schools to stay home or drop out completely for fear of further attacks. The targeting of children indirectly and destruction of schools in Maiduguri has bewildered and demoralized students, parents and teachers in a way that the daily attacks have not. Furthermore, the attacks have led to death of academic experts teaching in all levels of Nigeria’s educational system ranging from primary to secondary and beyond. On sun,29 April, 2012, members of the sect attacked Christian workshops in Bayero University Campus, Kano resulting to death of 20 students and 2 professor of the university. According to an eye witness, the attackers arrived in a car and two motorcycles and throw small homemade bombs to draw out worshippers before shooting at them as they attempt to flee. The attack led to the death of Professor Jerome Ayodele, a professor of chemistry and Professor Andrew Leo Ogbonyomi, a professor of library science with about 20 others dead and scores of others injured. (Ikhilae, 2012). Undoubtedly, this is a setback for educational development in the country. Also the persistence of insecurity in the north which has led to lose of about 700 lives so far this year (2012), has led to exodus of academic experts and shortage of qualified teaching man power in the region. It has also led to refusal of NYSC members who constitute about 50 per cent of teaching man power in the region to serve in the region. Maijawa Dawayo, Chairman, Yobe State Teaching Service Board, in an interview with Nations News Paper on 9 Feb. , 2012 has this to say, â€Å"the recent circular by the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) that corps members who constitute 50 per cent of the board’s man power should no longer be posted to senior secondary schools in the state would have an adverse effect on the educational sector of the State. Most of the corps members are not interested in coming here again because of insecurity in the north. We are in a difficult situation and something needs to be done urgently to solve the problem. The corps members constitute 50 per cent of the manpower in our schools and the head of the scheme had issued a circular that corps members would no longer be posted to senior secondary schools (The Nation, 9 Feb, 2012). Dawoye’s fear and lamentation was later made public and a reality in July 2012 when NYSC members posted to Borno, Yobe, Kano, Kaduna, Niger, Plateau and Bauchi state refused to serve in the states and protested against their deployment to the violent prone states. Corps members and their parents took to the street to protest their deployment to the Northern States when the 2012 NYSC Bach B list came out arguing that it is senseless to post young graduate to these states. Most of the parents vowed not to allow their children to go and be killed by Boko Haram (National Mirror, 2 July, 2012). Awosuru Lola, a graduate of Ladoke Akintola University of Technology (LAUTECH), Ogbomoso in Oyo state, who was posted to plateau state said his father hard ordered him not to report at the camp â€Å"for whatever reason. † Also Badiru Tajiudeen, a graduate of quantity surveying of Obafemi Awolowo University (O. A. U), Ile – Ife, posted to Zamfara state vowed that nothing could keep him beyond the mandatory three weeks of orientation programme in the camp. He also said that his parents are even reluctant in releasing him to participate in the three weeks orientation and warned him to abort the programme if he is not transferred back to the west (National Mirror, 2 July, 2012). This development will make a devastating mark on the educational sector of the affected northern states. It will be recalled that ten young corps members lost their lives during the post – presidential election protest/violence in some northern states in April 2011, while others lost their lives in other violent clashes in the region. The case of other Southerners who are teachers in the region is not different from that of NYSC members as most of them have found the exit door from the region. Dawayo confirmed this when he said that 80 per cent of Yobe State contract teachers who are from other states have left Yobe because of the same problem of insecurity (The Nation Feb 9, 2012) In addition, insecurity in the region caused by Boko Haram has also led to complete disruption of academic calendar in the region. Most of the attacks never go without imposition of curfew by the government. The attacks have in some cases led to imposition of 24 hours curfew and when such curfew is imposed, both students and teachers are affected and this on the long run adversely affects the academic calendar which stipulates when school starts and when it ends as well as what should be done in the school and when thus drawing students in the region behind their counterparts in other peaceful states. It is important that I state it clearly at this juncture that the North is a region where education enrolment and development is the least in the country and the current security situation is bound to compound the educational woes of the North and further widen the gap between it and the South. While private higher institution are rapidly springing up in the South to complement the over – stretched public institutions, only a handful has been established in the North and the few ones have come under Boko Haram attacks. According to National University commission (NUC), 50 private universities have been licensed to operate in the country. Out of this 50, fewer than 15 are established in the north. What this implies is a bleak future for educational development of the region and a bleak future for young children in the region and this by implication is dangerous to Nigeria’s peace, unity and development. No matter how one looks at it, the attacks by the sect on schools have left many destructive marks on the future of affected children in the region and the country at large. The affected children are at home which means a bleak future for them and the country at large because the future of a country depends on the kind and quality of education it offers its children. Finally, the insurrection of Boko Haram has led to distraction and diversion of both Federal and affected State government’s attention from the educational sector. This is evident in the 2012 annual budgetary allocation of the Federal Government in which the mind – bugling chunk of 921. 91 billion was allocated to security alone, while education on which the future of the country depends got the little chunk of 400. 48 billion naira which is not up to half of what is given to security. There is no argument on the fact that both security and education are critical for the survival of a nation, but had it been there is peace in the country, the chunk given to security would have been considerately lower than what it has now. What the lean resources allocated to the educational sector means is a gloomy and difficult future for the sector. This is because there will be no resources to introduce new educational developmental program and the ones already introduced will certainly suffer of poor funding.

Free Essays on The Unfinished 20th Century

The Unfinished Twentieth Century's synopsis of the treaties and conventions through which the development of nuclear arsenals has been channeled and contained is elegant, concise, and very informative. Certainly, the subject of this book, written by Jonathan Schell, is a timely one: the slow but sure leakage of nuclear weapons technology out of the exclusive club of nations which once contained it, into the rest of a restless world tired of being shut out in the cold. Schell's chilling analysis of the strategic predicament entailed by the post-Cold War situation is also apt, as is his characterization of the nuclear options now facing a world where technical knowledge flows along increasingly unpredictable lines. Sadly, The Unfinished Twentieth Century presents these basic insights on the diereses of the still-current nuclear threat powerfully and uninhibitedly. Using Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness as a key, and Hannah Arendt’s Reflections On the Nature of Evil a s a point of departure, Jonathan Schell suggests that the essential story of the twentieth century was the gigantic development of humankind’s capacity for self-destruction - with the rise in many forms of â€Å"policies of extermination.† Schell examines the legacy this leaves for the new millennium: the crisis of nuclear arms control that has arisen with the unraveling of the ABM treaty, the stalemate of the START talks, the proliferation of nuclear weapons in South Asia, and, perhaps, East Asia and the Middle-East. He suggests that the world now faces a stark choice between denuclearization, the abolition of all nuclear weapons, and full nuclearization, as the necessary technology and materials seep around the world. And as they do, history is being written. History, though, as it is crafted by humanity, does not quite follow the same principles of demarcation as when one century turns into another. Schell, identifies the 20th century as an unfinished perio... Free Essays on The Unfinished 20th Century Free Essays on The Unfinished 20th Century The Unfinished Twentieth Century's synopsis of the treaties and conventions through which the development of nuclear arsenals has been channeled and contained is elegant, concise, and very informative. Certainly, the subject of this book, written by Jonathan Schell, is a timely one: the slow but sure leakage of nuclear weapons technology out of the exclusive club of nations which once contained it, into the rest of a restless world tired of being shut out in the cold. Schell's chilling analysis of the strategic predicament entailed by the post-Cold War situation is also apt, as is his characterization of the nuclear options now facing a world where technical knowledge flows along increasingly unpredictable lines. Sadly, The Unfinished Twentieth Century presents these basic insights on the diereses of the still-current nuclear threat powerfully and uninhibitedly. Using Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness as a key, and Hannah Arendt’s Reflections On the Nature of Evil a s a point of departure, Jonathan Schell suggests that the essential story of the twentieth century was the gigantic development of humankind’s capacity for self-destruction - with the rise in many forms of â€Å"policies of extermination.† Schell examines the legacy this leaves for the new millennium: the crisis of nuclear arms control that has arisen with the unraveling of the ABM treaty, the stalemate of the START talks, the proliferation of nuclear weapons in South Asia, and, perhaps, East Asia and the Middle-East. He suggests that the world now faces a stark choice between denuclearization, the abolition of all nuclear weapons, and full nuclearization, as the necessary technology and materials seep around the world. And as they do, history is being written. History, though, as it is crafted by humanity, does not quite follow the same principles of demarcation as when one century turns into another. Schell, identifies the 20th century as an unfinished perio...

Review of Scoring Rubric

Review of Scoring Rubric Introduction English language learners’ represents a significant subpopulation of USA students which in the 2006/07 school year were more than 5 million in the PK to 12 grades (Esquinca, Yaden, Rueda, 2008). This is projected to represent 1 in 9 students in the country with 80% of them nationally being native Spanish speakers and overall about 400 different home languages.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Review of Scoring Rubric specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More English language Proficiency tests whether commercial or institutional are used to assess proficiency of limited English proficient (LEP) students. In every state in the country, states, education agencies and schools have an obligation to identify LEP students especially those who come from homes where another language other than English is spoken. These tests are meant to assess the student’s oral proficiency in English also writing and reading skills (The California State University, 2009). In some states, there are already laid out procedures for identifying students who might become LEP students. There are set of questions designed to find out non-English speakers under Home Language Survey program. If discovered that a student is from non-English background, an English proficiency test is issued. In other states, specific English language proficiency tests are used. In other countries such as USA, Australia and UK and others where English is the language of communication, English language proficiency test is a requirement for international students wanting to pursue education in these countries at any level. It is a requirement also in other for immigration, skilled worker programs, and professional titles (Solorzano, 2008). For these students, commercial tests such as TOEFL and IELTS are recommended. International English Language Testing System (IELTS) IELTS was established 21 years ago and was one of th e pioneer tests in English language skills. The test is co-owned by the University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations, the British Council, and the IDP: Australia with more than 800 testing centers and locations in 130 countries around the world (Alderson, Krahnke, Stansfield, 2008).Advertising Looking for critical writing on languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More IELTS assesses English language proficiency in four skills; listening, reading, writing and speaking. These tests are continually improved to encompass advances in applied linguistics, technology, language assessment and language pedagogy (The California State University, 2009). Test formats and results The IELTS tests are available in over 800 centers and locations in 130 countries of the world, and are accessible internationally. Every year the tests are held on fixed dates and are set in the same conditions across the world. It consists of four parts, w hich reflect the skills in the English language. These are reading, writing, speaking and listening. These are oriented to test candidates in their mastery of English in real life-situations. They are also offered in two formats, the academic format for university and tertiary candidates and general training. They are also used by English medium universities, colleges and professional groups and immigration agencies such as in Canada to test the immigrants English language ability (TESL Canada Federation, 2011). Test Content IELTS test on listening contains four sections of recorded assessment for candidates. This increase in complexity as they progress and contain a mixture of dialogue and conversation. This test contains seven different task categories which include tables, matching, forms, multiple choice, classification and notes. This tests the ability of a candidate to listen and understand contents in English in real-life situations. This section takes about 40 minutes where the first 30 minutes a candidate listens to recorded material and in the last 10 answers the given questions as outlined by Ekbatani, (2010). In reading skills assessment, candidates are presented with three passages, which are derived from authentic books, magazines or even journals, which they are supposed to read and complete ten different tasks. These include multiple choice, short answer, sentence completion and labeling diagrams among others. In writing skills, candidates are required to complete two tasks, which are a one hundred and fifty word report, based on presentations in a table or diagram. This tests the ability of the candidate to describe and explain issues as they seem. The other task is a 250 word essay which could be in response to an opinion or problem outlined in the test.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Review of Scoring Rubric specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The final skill tested is speaking which is done for ten to fifteen minutes. Here, the candidate and the examiner interact on a face-to-face basis and the former is expected to describe, narrate and give explanations on personal and general issue topics that are asked. These tests have an overall test time of two hours and forty five minutes. Test scoring The listening and reading tests contain 40 items and each correct answer is given one mark with the maximum a candidate can achieve being 40 points. These points are known as raw points and are then put in band scores, which range from 1 to 9, 1 meant to mean no language skills and 9 meaning an expert user of the language. In writing and speaking skills test, detailed performance descriptors are used with each being rated in the 9 IELTS bands. After the marking, and scoring, candidates receive test report forms showing overall test band score and the scores in the subtests. Each of the subtest scores carries the same weight and the final score is obtain ed by calculating the mean score of the four subtests. These results are valid for two years (Hogan, 2005). Band scale Tests are marked thoroughly and consistently and results scored on a 9 band system. This is a unique scale that does not give a pass or fail instead it puts the overall scores in a band system where each band means specific English language competency. These are then reported in the nearest whole or half bands, which are discussed by TESL Canada Federation, (2011) Band 0 means that the candidate did not provide any information while band 1 means the candidate is a non user of the language and has no ability to use it behold a few isolated words. A candidate with 1-3 marks falls into this category. Band 2 is referred to an irregular user who does not have the capacity to communicate in English apart from the essential information where limited words are used in familiar instances and needy situations. This candidate experiences hardships in the use and understanding of the English. Band 3 refers to a candidate who is a very limited user of English. He/she expresses and understands basic meaning in familiar situations and communication breakdown arises.Advertising Looking for critical writing on languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Band 4 refer to a limited user of the language and portrays basic competence only in familiar environments. Problems in understanding and articulating issues arise, and complex language use is not possible. Band 5 represents a candidate who is a modest user of English language. This one has limited use of the language where overall meaning is understood although he/she might make a mistake. Communication in familiar field is possible though. Band 6 candidate uses English proficiently and has a valuable grasp, however, there is a likelihood of, inappropriacies, misunderstandings and inaccuracies. In common situations, the candidate can fairly understand complex language. A band 7candidate uses English excellently, since the operational command of the same is demonstrated, however, occasional misunderstandings and inappropriacies are observed. This candidate can cope with intricate language and detailed reasoning. A band 8 candidate uses English very excellently, since he/she demonstr ates unwavering command of the language, however, inappropriacies and unsystematic inaccuracies come about intermittently. This candidate handles intricate in depth reasoning well. This is given to a candidate who has a raw score of 35-39 marks. Band 9 is an expert user of the language where he/she has fully equipped command. He understands the language completely in an appropriate and accurate manner. Has a raw score of 40-41 marks. Scoring rubric reliability and validity The IELTS modules are rated by certified and trained examiners according to Hogan, (2005). They use a set of descriptors made from each key criteria of each module as Hogan continues to say. For example, speaking sub test where the major criteria are ease, consistency, grammatical range and accuracy, lexical resource and pronunciation (Hogan, 2005). These band descriptors that actually are used are confidential, but IELTS have provided a public version of them which are available on their website. These are mainly for the purpose of helping stakeholders know what candidates can do also for candidates to know the level of performance expected from each band score and in each criterion. IELTS examiners have also been put through intensive training and standardization in face-to-face situations so that they can be well positioned to apply the descriptors in a valid and reliable manner (Solorzano, 2008). Also, the production of question papers follows several stages that ensure that the results are reliable and indiscriminative. First, appropriate test content is outlined that reflects the goals of academic and general training modules. The next stage involves trailing the material with a representative group with an aim of determining whether there is a challenge indistinguishing between the more and the less able students. Finally, the questions are introduced to live tests in the standard fixing stage to ensure it aligns with the IELTS metric (TESL Canada Federation, 2011). IELTS scores are v alid for two years, and if for more than that, a valid proof should accompany the scores to show that the candidate has maintained or tried to advance their English. This is because the test shows a person’s language skill at a given time. A person’s ability to communicate in English may diminish in time especially if the language is not in use (Hogan, 2005). Test of English as a Foreign Language-Internet-based Test (TOEFL IBT) According to Hogan, (2005), the TOEFL IBT is an examination that weighs up nonnative English speakers capacity to understand and exploit spoken and written English in environments such as, schools, colleges, as well as universities. According to Hogan, (2005), the test allows institutions to gauge the student’s capacity to communicate in English in academic situations and how ready they are to undertake academic work as it assesses integrated skills. TOEFL IBT was developed and is used by ETS a nonprofit organization that is involved in t he advancement of quality education to all around the world. These tests are based on rigorous research and innovation with more than 5 million in 180 countries and 9,000 locations worldwide people taking them every year. Education Testing Services (ETS) was established in 1947 by the American Council of Education, the Collage Examination Board and Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. These organizations gave their testing programs, assets and manpower to establish an educational research and assessment institution that will see advancement of knowledge. This has grown to extend their services to learners worldwide. Besides TOEFL, the organization also offers assessments in TOEL tests, GRE and the Praxis Series (Education Transparency Services, 2009). TOEFL IBT is a version of the English language test that is offered over the internet for assessment in English skills for academic environments. Its core emphasis is integrated communications and communicative competen ce. TOEFL IBT exams are taken in the institutes’ Prometric centers as well as in university and educational centers that use internet based programs. USA was the first to adopt the technology in 2005, followed by Canada, France, Germany and Italy. The use of the internet has enabled the organization to make the test more accessible to many users as well as widening the measure of the English proficiency globally (TESL Canada Federation, 2011). The test does not consist of separate tasks testing different skills as is the case with IELTS but an integrated assessment that tests the four skills; reading, listening, reading and writing at once. The tests involve three approaches as outlined by Buckendahl, Blackhust, Rodeck, (2006); In the first approach, a candidate is supposed to read, listen, and then speak as he/she answers the questions asked, Secondly, a candidate listens and then talk to respond to a question posed, The final approach is where a candidate reads, listens, and then writes down responses to questions. The reading part of the TOEFL IBT consists of 3-5 passages, which are drawn from academic sources and 12-14 questions, based on each passage. The listening skills are tested using 2-3 discussions with two speakers with each having 5 questions lasting 3 minutes. The speaking sub test contain 6 tasks with 2 of them requiring candidates to talk about general topics, two involving listening to a spoken lecture and responding to queries on this while a further two involves reading a brief academic text, listening to the spoken information about this text and then responding to the questions on the two materials. Writing generally involves two tasks. One requiring a candidate to read a short academic text listens to a recorded lecture that is related to the text and answer questions that incorporate the two materials. The last task involves writing an essay about a topic of interest. The whole test takes about 41/2 hours (TESL Canada Federatio n, 2011). Scoring the test The TEOFL IBT is marked out of 30 points for each section, and the total score is out of 120 points. The reading and listening skills are rating that are computer based. In speaking skills, which is done by ETS raters, each task is marked out of four points, and the overall score is put on a scale of 0-30. The writing skills also are marked out of five points for each task and then put on a 0-30 scaled score. The difference between this test and the IELTS is that separate sections do not carry the same weight as they are considered to assess different language abilities (Esquinca, Yaden, Rueda, 2008). Performance interpretation, reliability and validity Performance scores for each section are interpreted differently. For reading performance description ranges from low, medium and high. In speaking ability, performance is rated as weak, limited, fair and good while writing is described as limited, fair or good (The California State University, 2009). This test does not use face-to-face interviews in the speaking section but rather have the candidates record their responses in English. This is said by (Ekbatani, 2010) to eliminate a lot of bias that might be found in face-to-face interviews that are determined by the rapport the examiner and candidate created during the meeting. The recordings together with the other test materials are assessed by between three to six raters instead of relying on a single rater’s impressions. This is said to be fairer for the candidates and more accurate for academic institutions in gauging their students’ skills. TOEFL IBT test has a more improved writing section to the original TOEFL paper based in that another writing task was introduced. The candidate is anticipated to read a small passage, pay attention to a lecture by listening and then put in writing the responses on the computer (Ekbatani, 2010). This whole test takes four hours and is completed the same day which is convenient f or a candidate. Buckendahl, Blackhust, Rodeck, (2006) say that the use of other integrated tasks independently will help instructors to link better teaching, learning and testing in academic environments. Comparison of IETLS and TOEFL-IBT scores and scoring procedures TOEFL IBT speaking and writing modules are graded holistically where the score that is given is an overall assessment of the whole essay in terms of vocabulary, logic, style, and grammar. In IELTS, on the other hand, scoring is done using a checklist where each item in the list is graded individually. The checklist includes grammar, word choice, fluency, cohesion and logic among others. TOEFL IBT generally requires a person with an ability to compose a logical and detailed argument which exhibits clarity, excellent word choice and style. IETLS requires excellence in grammar and vocabulary and generally a candidate who can write a decent essay (Education Transparency Services, 2009). In TOEFL IBT speaking module, scori ng procedures are more complex where the responses are spoken into a microphone, then recorded digitally and ETS is used for scoring. Through ETS Online Scoring Network (OSN), four to six different human raters score the responses. This ensures objectivity and reliability. In IETLS, speaking module test is conducted by an interviewer in the country where the candidate is taking the test, who then scores the response (Hogan, 2005). In the writing module, TOEFL IBT candidates type and then send responses digitally to ETS for assessment. Writing responses are scored the same way the speaking responses are scored. They are rated by four to six raters through ETS OSN for reliability and objectivity purposes. In IELTS, responses are handwritten by the candidate and then forwarded to in-country human raters at the test center for scoring (Ekbatani, 2010). In terms of quality control of the rating procedures, TOEFL IBT, raters are subjected to a calibration test, which they must pass, every time they rate. The scoring sessions are also monitored by scoring leaders to ensure highest quality control. In IETLS, examiners go through a retraining and recertification process every two years to ensure reliability (Alderson, Krahnke, Stansfield, 2008). Conclusion English proficiency is a requirement not only in schools in countries like United States of America but also for immigration, skilled worker programs, and professional titles in English speaking countries. English proficiency tests are used to assess the communication skills of a candidate. IELTS and TOEFL IBT are among the most common tests since they are accepted by many institutions and offered in many centers around the world. These have four testing modules; speaking, writing, reading and listening though the contents of these and their procedures in testing are different. TOEFL IBT is computer based while IETLS is paper based. In the scoring and scoring procedures, the two tests are different in terms of scori ng, scoring rubrics and the way the responses are rated. Moreover, both tests have different procedures of ensuring validity, reliability and the way the test results are interpreted. Reference List Alderson, C., Krahnke, K., Stansfield, C. (2008). Reviews of English Language Proficiency Tests. Teachers of English to Spekears of Other Languages, 358-368. Buckendahl, C., Blackhust, A., Rodeck, E. (2006). Adaptation within a Language: Considerations for Standard Setting. International Test Commission Conference (pp. 1-19). Brussels: University of Cambridge ESOL. Education Transparency Services. (2009). Guidelines for the Assessment of English  Language Learners. United States of America: Education Transparency Services. Ekbatani, G. (2010). Measurement and Evaluation in Post-Secondary ESL. New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group. Esquinca, A., Yaden, D., Rueda, R. (2008). Current Language Proficiency Tests and  their Implications for Preschool English language learners. U nited States of America: University of Southern Califonia. Hogan, M. (2005). Something New? Quite a Lot In IELTS, Actually. 18th Annual EA  Education Conference 2005 (pp. 40-58). Australia: IELTS. Solorzano, R. (2008). Review of Educational Research: High Stakes Testing; Issues,  implications, and Remedies for English Language Learners. United States of America: American Educational Research Association. TESL Canada Federation. (2011). Overview of English Language Proficiency  Tests. Retrieved from TESL Canada Federation: https://www.tesl.ca/ The California State University. (2009). Focus on English: English Placement Test  (EPT). California: The California State University. Vecchio, A., Guerrero, M. (1995). Handbook of English Language Proficiency Tests.  New Mexico: New Mexico Highlands University.